Beloved Paper: Supernatural

Adored Essay: Supernatural A significant piece of the novel Beloved by Toni Morrison is the situation of somebody being spooky. The extraordinary component invades the novel. The characters are spooky by the past, in view of the decisions they’ve made and the things they’ve done. The entirety of the characters were influenced by bondage, yet Sethe, Denver, and Paul D are spooky by the past that stretches and handles them in 124. Beloved’s character is an undeniable utilization of the otherworldly. She’s like a vampire that sucks the spirit, the heart, and the psyche of her mom while depleting the connections that exists between Denver with Sethe and Sethe with Paul D.Sethe is the most significantly frequented in the book. She is the one whose past is awful to the point that it is certain. How might she get away from an earlier time when it is truly separated of her? She is the person who was for all time scarred by subjugation both truly and metaphorically . She has scars left from being whipped that she calls a â€Å"tree†. She portrays it as â€Å"A chokecherry tree. Trunk, branches, and even leaves. Minuscule chokecherry leaves. In any case, that was eighteen years prior. Could have fruits too now for all I know† (pg. 16). She is the one experienced subjugation and got away it.She chose to kill her own youngster as opposed to permit her to be constrained into bondage, since she had experienced so much it. It is slanted that her past is spoken to on her back, implying that it is something that is behind her, something she can't see however realizes that is there. Sethe realizes that the past has connected itself to her however its frequenting has not quit developing. Sethe doesn’t appear to perceive that the frequenting is truly with her the entire time, since it empties the life from her. At the point when Paul D enters Sethe’s life, he finds a frequenting of Sethe nearly immediately.He strolls into 124 and sees that there is an undesirable soul in the house, â€Å"It was dismal. Strolling through it, a flood of sorrow splashed him so altogether he needed to cry† (pg. 9). Paul D halted Beloved’s frequenting, in her soul structure, the first run through by shouting â€Å"God damn it! Quiet! Disregard the spot! Get the Hell out! † (pg. 18). In any case, Beloved is Sethe’s most noteworthy frequent and it is when Beloved shows up in physical structure that Sethe is compelled to pivot and go up against the past. The inversion of intensity from Sethe to Beloved is when Beloved began to become like a parasite to Sethe.The parasitic part of parenthood is enhanced in this novel, similar to the manner in which the embryo is a parasite to the mother’s uterus, sucking the life from and keeps on feeding its body by taking the mother’s body and supplements. Cherished is the otherworldly portrayal of this. Her brain and activities talk as a kid not a grow n-up. She adores her mom and needs her everything to herself like a little multi year old youngster. She even loves Denver like a younger sibling, yet she is likewise envious of her and the relationship she has with her mom and the way that Denver endure and she didn’t.Beloved claims Sethe â€Å"I am Beloved and she is mine† (pg. 210). An average multi year old will effectively get what she needed, so Beloved â€Å"made requests. Anything she needed she got, and when Sethe came up short on things to give her, Beloved created desire† (pg. 240). Dearest has taken such a great amount from Sethe that Sethe’s intellectual abilities decrease since she has surrendered any idea of life other than concentrating on dealing with Beloved and that's it. Her own blame had made it so natural for her to be entangled by Beloved.The thought of Beloved leaving would smash her, subsequently her biggest dread was â€Å"that Beloved may leave. That before Sethe could cause he r to comprehend what it implied what it took to drag the teeth of that saw under the little jaw; to feel the infant blood siphon like oil in her grasp; to hold her face so her head would remain on†¦ † (pg. 251). Sethe didn’t do anything, can’t do anything aside from â€Å"those times when Beloved required her†¦ she sat in the seat licking her lips like a chastised youngster while Beloved gobbled up her life, took it, expand with it, became taller on it.And the more seasoned lady yielded it up without a murmur† (pg. 250) Towards the finish of the novel, Beloved changed from being a blameless youngster who simply needed to be with her mom, she turned into a wickedness tricky kid who needs vengeance from her mom for murdering her. Sethe’s offense made it that a lot simpler for her to do as such. At the point when Paul D previously appeared at the doorstep of 124, he appeared to be mindful of the need of standing up to the past so as to get aw ay from its hold. He attempted to help Sethe pardon herself and she should have a sense of security about wandering â€Å"inside† her difficult memories.When Beloved’s appearance powers Sethe to confront the past and the recollections started to devour her totally. The main way Sethe can escape Beloved’s hold is just with the assistance of people around her. Denver attempts to keep Sethe alive; the network assists with ousting Beloved; Paul D bolsters Sethe by disclosing to her that she, not her youngsters, is her own best thing. The main way they can partake later on together is to manage the past. The powerful angle assumed a major job in the novel Beloved by Toni Morrison. The characters are spooky by their pasts, from the decisions that they’ve made and the things that they’ve done.The characters needed to overlook the past and abandon everything, on the grounds that â€Å"this isn't a story to pass on. † The narrator’s cautioning is planned to advise us that it is difficult to keep that history in our memory, however it isn't useful for us to recollect it either. Overlooking the past should be possible if there is nothing that will remind the individual about it, yet how might it be overlooked when the past is frequenting you in the physical structure? Sethe was fortunate the individuals around her got her wake up and proceed with her life.

SHORT ANSWER ONLY Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

SHORT ANSWER ONLY - Assignment Example It very well may be depicted as the phase that a specific culture or individual has reached for example stone age culture. It covers such things as shared morals and convictions also conduct. As some time in the past as 1889 Taylor characterized culture as ‘ the unpredictable entire which incorporates information, conviction, workmanship, ethics, law, custom and some other abilities obtained by man as a part society.’ Anthropology is the investigation of these different societies. I have a place with mid 21st century westernized socity. Culture is influenced by condition, yet additionally by what the gathering need. Breen announced ( 2006)that culture was society’s answer to life’s fundamental inquiries. Human culture has concocted a wide range of answers after some time , as differed as Egypt under the Pharaohs to current road culture. 2. Correspondence, General, Balanced and Negative. When all is said in done correspondence alludes to connections . These can include just two people or a lot more as in a town or town, a group or a school class. A fair correspondence is a circumstance including trust on the two sides, where every advantage similarly from a relationship for example a caring couple. It could likewise allude to the regular negative parts of this, for example, some absence of individual decision and opportunity. Negative correspondence happens when, from multiple points of view, assets are separated. A few elements included are acknowledged by society for example a broker expecting to make a benefit. As a client I understand this and am cheerful in light of the fact that he has given me something, even at an expense. Slave work is a case of an extremely negative correspondence. These different connections are concentrated by anthropologists so as to all the more likely comprehend society in its numerous structures. 3. More distant family - this alludes to all the individuals one is identified with, anyway inaccessible the relationship. It incorporates both blood connections, and furthermore the individuals who are connected by marriage or association with a blood relative i.e parents in law and accomplices. This implies a lot of guardians and youngsters, yet their life partners, cousins, aunties and all the rest. A group or clan can , in many occurrence, be considered as a more distant family, and all people have a place with the overall group of humankind, both those alive and the individuals who went before us. Maybe this is the reason I can see a face from far away and perceive family resemblances. A family unit alludes to one couple and their posterity as a segregated unit. In numerous cases in current society this family unit will live alone, away from other more distant family individuals. As indicated by Sixth Sense’ ( 2005) functionalists consider this to be of family as positive as it implies that mankind is proceeding. Investigation of the two sorts of family can help with getting r eady for such things as training, advertising, house building and financial matters. 4. Family relationship . This is characterized as a relationship by blood ( association) or selection and for the most part alludes to family connections . Regularly in a family relationship bunch there will be shared qualities, for example, dim hair, or extraordinary tallness. The individuals from such a gathering may likewise share basic moral and good thoughts, which is the reason some relatives think that its troublesome when a part joins , maybe in marriage, with somebody from a totally different gathering who hold contrasting thoughts. The term can likewise be utilized for those , not really related, however who share a partiality in that there are basic bonds, for example, my kindred understudies in school, in that what influences one influences the others for example the cost of settlement or a preference for a specific kind of music.. The term is characterized by the Sociology Dictionary (

A fortnight of Boston summer

A fortnight of Boston summer It’s funny how one month can entirely change your perspective on life. As I write this, it is one month to the day since I took my 7.05 (biochemistry) final. This was my only test of finals week, so I spent every waking moment reviewing enzymatic pathways and taking practice exams until it got to the point that, by reading the first sentence of a practice problem, I would know the answer because I had done that question several times already. So when people say the dust settles after finals week, they’re really not kidding. I found myself waking up on May 19 with no plans for the day. Better yet, I had two weeks of days like this before helping at the hooding ceremony for MIT doctorate students and shipping out of Boston. There’s a list of “101 things to do before you graduate” that every MIT student receives in Orientation, and mine is a little more than halfway done. Considering the fact that I’m already  ¾ of the way done with MIT in general, I knew I had to get cracking on this list. The Prudential Center peeks over the Back Bay Fens, where Boston citizens can maintain their own gardens Behind me is the bustle of Kenmore Square and Fenway Park, home to the Red Sox. In front of me is more of the Back Bay Fens, part of Bostons beautiful Emerald Necklace. On another errand, I walked out of an office and saw Hanover Street, the Broadway of Bostons Italian North End neighborhood. Off of Hanover, the streets are really narrow and there is brick everywhere. Say hello to the Boston Harbor, which is connected to the Charles River! And if you go to the North End, you must go to Mikes Pastry And if you go to Mikes Pastry, you must get a cannoli And if you get a cannoli, you must find a nearby park to enjoy it in when theres perfect weather. It was Memorial Day weekend, so the Boston Commons were celebrating with full force! I had time to grab lunch at the Clover food truck before heading off to the Haymarket farmers market to get really cheap, really amazing produce. I got an entire box of bananas for a buck, and made something like three different banana breads that weekend. Also on Memorial Day weekend, the Boston Museum of Fine Art opens its doors to the public for free (although MIT students can get in for free any day with a student ID). Looks like a lot of people are excited to see some art! But where is everyone? Oh thats right, the Chihuly exhibit is in town. These photos dont do the exhibit justice because my camera just couldnt handle the low lighting, but they give you an idea of the complexity and allure of the blown glass artwork. As a Californian, summer means beach trips, so a group of friends and I went to Singing Beach by Manchester-by-the-Sea (yes, that is actually the name of the town), which was easily accessible by the commuter rail, a train system that connects to the T subways. The sand made this crazy noise when you dragged your feet over it. It was singing (sort of)! But it’s not like I spent all my free time going to museums, eating delicious cannolis, and jumping in the Atlantic Ocean. There was work to be done! I went to a meeting for the IAB, the Industry Advisory Board for the GEL Program and got to see Bernie Gordon, the program’s founder! The IAB gets together about quarterly to talk about how the program is doing and what its future may hold. The room is filled with MIT professors, industry engineers, and GEL staff, so to be in the presence of all this engineering power was a real treat! Student input is regarded highly by this board, and my fellow GELs and I were there to give feedback from a student perspective. photos by Bruce Mendelsohn Finally, the whole reason I got to stay on campus for so long after finals was the hooding ceremony. You’re all probably familiar with Commencement, where undergrad and graduate students alike receive their diplomas in Killian Court. The hooding ceremony, however, is when the doctorate students receive their hoods, the colorful garments that they wear over their gowns to identify their school and degree (red means PhD, or doctorate of philosophy; yellow means ScD, or doctorate of science). My job in all of this was to help the MIT faculty put their hoods on, because it involves a lot of straightening and aligning and buttoning that can be awkward for someone in a flowing academic robe to keep track of. Imagine my nerves as I went up to various faculty members, who could scholarly crush me with a single thought, and asked if they needed help putting their hood over their robe. Of course, faculty are people, too, so they were pleasantly appreciative for the assistance. Check out the MIT News Offices coverage here. So, for all those who wonder “is there anything green in downtown Boston,” “do MIT students actually seek out fun things to do in the area,” or “what on earth is the hooding ceremony,” I hope I’ve cleared up some things for you. Happy summer y’all! Ill leave you with my favorite picture of the fortnight, which I snatched while crossing the Longfellow Bridge. This is my favorite bridge that spans the Charles. It may not have Smoots, but it has a better view and drops you off closer to the heart of downtown Boston.

Unit 4222-237 Dementia Awareness (DEM 201) Essay - 4308 Words

Unit 4222-237 Dementia Awareness (DEM 201) 1.1 – Explain what is meant by the term ‘dementia’ The term dementia describes a set of symptoms which include loss of memory, mood changes and problems with communication and reasoning. These symptoms occur when the brain is damaged by numerous certain diseases. Dementia is progressive, which means the symptoms will gradually get worse. How fast dementia progresses will depend on the individual person and what type of dementia they have. Each person is unique and will experience dementia in their own way. 1.2 – Describe the key functions of the brain that are affected by dementia The key functions that are affected by dementia are: Temporal Lobe – Responsible for vision, memory, language,†¦show more content†¦Dementia as a clinical syndrome is characterised by global cognitive impairment, which represents a decline from previous level of functioning and is associated with impairment in functional abilities and in many cases behavioural and psychiatric disturbances. 2.2 – outline the social model of dementia The social model of dementia is about the person and how it affects individuals. The social model of care seeks to understand the emotions and behaviours of the person with dementia by placing him or her within the context of his or her social circumstances and biography. By learning about each person with dementia as an individual, with his or her own history and background care support can be designed to be more appropriate to individual needs. 2.3 – Explain why dementia should be viewed as a disability People who have dementia are not aware of requirements for living. They can forget to do the essential things that are vital. Taking medicines, hygiene and even eating are often forgotten. They can get lost or hurt and not understand what is necessary to correct a situation. Turning on the cooker or water and forgetting to turn it off again, locking doors, crossing streets etc can all be dangerous even deadly. In the same way as you would not think an infant capable of self care, a person with dementia cannot be either. Considering the facts that they cannot act in the manner of aShow MoreRelatedEssay on Unit 4222-237 Dementia awareness720 Words   |  3 PagesUnit 4222-237 Dementia awareness (DEM 201) 1.1 Dementia is a loss of brain function. If affects memory, thinking, language, judgement and behaviour. Dementia is progressive, so the symptoms will gradually get worse. In a later stage of dementia people will find it hard to carry out daily tasks and will come dependant on other people. 1.2 The key functions of the brain that is affected by dementia are:  · The Frontal lobe; which is to do with behaviour, the person’s personality, interpretationRead MoreDem 2011002 Words   |  5 PagesUnit 4222-237 Dementia awareness (DEM 201) Outcome 1 Understand what dementia is The learner can: 1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘dementia’ 2. Describe the key functions of the brain that are affected by dementia 3. Explain why depression, delirium and age related memory impairment may be mistaken for dementia. Outcome 2 Understand key features of the theoretical models of dementia The learner can: 1. Outline the medical model of dementia 2. Outline the social model of dementia Read MoreDem 2012240 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿Unit 4222-237 Dementia Awareness (DEM 201) Outcome 1 understand what dementia is Explain what is meant by the term â€Å"dementia† (201.1.1) Dementia describes a set of symptoms that may include memory loss and difficulties with thinking, problem-solving or language. These changes are often small to start with, but for someone with dementia they have become severe enough to affect daily life. Dementia is caused when the brain is damaged by diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementiaRead MoreMedicare Policy Analysis447966 Words   |  1792 PagesWellness program grants. Extension of COBRA continuation coverage. State Health Access Program grants. Administrative simplification. TITLE II—PROTECTIONS AND STANDARDS FOR QUALIFIED HEALTH BENEFITS PLANS Subtitle A—General Standards Sec. 201. Requirements reforming health insurance marketplace. Sec. 202. Protecting the choice to keep current coverage. Subtitle B—Standards Guaranteeing Access to Affordable Coverage Sec. 211. Prohibiting preexisting condition exclusions. Sec. 212. Guaranteed

Impact Of Scrooge In A Christmas Carol - 896 Words

Impacted can be defined as having a strong influence in a positive manor on someone or something. Scrooge was impacted most by the Ghost of Christmas present in the novella A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens. The Ghost of Christmas present taught him how to show kindness to others, and showed Scrooge how he affected those around him. Scrooge began his transformation into a good man when the Ghost of Christmas present shows him the Cratchit household. Scrooge throughout this scene is presented with the consequences of his actions and how they affect those who are less fortunate than he. â€Å"Think of that. Bob had but fifteen bob a-week himself; he pocketed on Saturdays but fifteen copies of his Christian name; and yet the Ghost of†¦show more content†¦One half-hour, Ghost, only one!† His excitement at the games is obvious, and although he is not technically included in them, his relish of the interaction is apparent. The Ghost of Christmas Present showed Scrooge many happenings from the people Scrooge knows, but the Ghost also showed him people he doesn’t know and probably never will, people who are suffering themselves. After the Ghost showed Scrooge the Cratchit’s household and his nephew’s house, he showed him people far from home, people in jails, people in hospitals, and people who were simply struggling. The Ghost blessed each of those people, the people that he had no relation to, the people whom he knew nothing about. Their struggles were relieved, the struggling more patient, the sick healed, and so on. In doing this, the Ghost showed Scrooge that although Scrooge was not magical, one person’s blessing can impact many people. He showed Scrooge that kindness and generosity can make the biggest difference, and caring about others, caring about all others, can create a big change and be beneficial to everyone. Although, asShow MoreRelatedA Christmas Carol Analysis707 Words   |  3 PagesA Christmas Carol Discussion By Kalana A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens is a story about a man who is stingy, rude and solitary. His name is Scrooge, and he gets taught many lessons. Scrooge comes out a changed man who is optimistic and happy. The lessons he gets taught is not only for him but also for Dickens readers. Throughout this text, there many situations where usual readers can relate to. In other parts of the text, there are moments that are rare and have a massive impact on ScroogesRead MoreChristmas Carol Analysis679 Words   |  3 PagesCesar Granda E.G 121 When reading A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens you realize that Scrooge’s childhood has a huge impact on his adult life, his adult self is a mirror image of his child self, both in his emotions and relationships. This becomes apparent when the ghost of Christmas past appears and takes Scrooge on a journey back into his childhood days. His childhood really molds Scrooge into the person he becomes later in life. Scrooge was a lonely and withdrawn child because heRead MoreCharles Dickens A Christmas Carol1316 Words   |  6 PagesIt can be easily depicted that Christmas is a time of the year to share joyfulness. In Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is a character that is effortlessly described as a hardheaded cold man. It is simple to judge the character of Scrooge in this manner, but it is important to recognize the change in his personality throughout the story. Scrooge’s transformation happens very quickly, but he becomes generous and caring only when he is forced to see himself through a stranger’sRead MoreThe Life Of Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol1062 Words   |  5 Pages1832 to 1901 under Queen Victoria’s reign. The culture revealed in this era was a time of rapid change, social inequality, industrialization, supernatural and religious beliefs, and was accurately reflected in the works of Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol. Ro les of men and women were strictly defined, as were economic statuses. The hustle and bustle of the streets led to illnesses. Working conditions were destitute and unsanitary. Children often had little to no education, unless very fortunateRead MoreDickens Use of Symbolism in A Christmas Carol Essay example969 Words   |  4 PagesDickens Use of Symbolism in A Christmas Carol Charles Dickens wrote a large number of novels but this particular novella was very popular as it told the story of a typical Christmas in Victorian times. The word Scrooge derives from the character Scrooge in this novella, which proves that Dickens story really did make an impact on the reading public. In A Christmas Carol there are three main themes that would have been influenced by the times when Dickens wasRead More10 Christmas Movies that Wont Turn You into a Grinch or Scrooge861 Words   |  4 Pages10 Christmas Movies that Wont Turn you Into a Grinch or Scrooge Hundreds of Christmas movies have been made since the invention of motion pictures and are still being made to this day. There are only a few that are considered â€Å"Classics†. What I consider classics are the movies that families pull out every year to watch during the Christmas season. If you prefer more recently made movies, there are many great movies that made it onto my list from the 90s and 2000s. These are some of my favoriteRead MoreHow Dickens Conveys Moral Lessons in a Christmas Carol Essay1879 Words   |  8 PagesWhat are the moral lessons Dickens wished to convey in A Christmas Carol and how effectively does he convey them? Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol is a classic Christmas story which contains stern moral lessons, written in 1843. These lessons are designed to make the readers of that time, the Victorians, conscience of the injustices that were present in the rapidly expanding cities of Britain, due to the Industrial Revolution. The story includes three morals, demonstrated by the three GhostsRead MoreDickens Use of Language and Structure to Build Up a Picture of the Joy of Christmas Present1022 Words   |  5 PagesDickens Use of Language and Structure to Build Up a Picture of the Joy of Christmas Present I’m going to analyse stave 3 of a Christmas carol, Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth in 1812. In 1836 Dickens published the first part in a serialisation called The Posthumous papers of the Pickwick club better known as The Pickwick papers. In 1843 he wrote his first and most famous Christmas story, A Christmas Carol. Victorians in those times, a lot of them lived in poverty, and theyRead MoreA Christmas Carol Analysis1036 Words   |  5 PagesCharles Dickens’s main character in â€Å"A Christmas Carol†. This play is about the story of a man, Ebenezer Scrooge, who was greedy, loved money, and had a heart that was hardened toward Christmas. Charles Dickens wrote this story to help expose the suffering of the poor and to convince readers that conditions need to be corrected. Through the visitations of three spirits, Scrooge learned why he had become greedy, how much he had missed out on by avoiding Christmas, and that he was capable of becomingRead Moreâ€Å"He became as good a friend, as good a master, and as good a man, as the good old city knew†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Discuss Scrooge’s transformation in A Christmas Carol.873 Words   |  4 Pagesand as good a man, as the good old city knew†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Discuss Scrooge’s transformation in A Christmas Carol. Charles Dickens, renowned social critic and celebrated author of the Victorian Era. In his most cherished yuletide novella, Dickens’ explores the idea of transformation and man’s ability to redeem himself. By observing Scrooge’s conversion from misanthrope to humanitarian, the reader can understand that Scrooge is only able to transform because of the ghost’s intervention. Each spirit’s visit secures

Rurality in Post Industrial Society Free Essays

string(235) " about the social and economic organization of rural areas, their role in national society, polity and economy, and their relative share of a nation’s population and economic activity will provide a stronger basis for public policy\." Paper prepared for the conference ‘New Forms of Urbanization: Conceptualizing and Measuring Human Settlement in the Twenty-first Century’, organized by the IUSSP Working Group on Urbanization and held at the Rockefeller Foundation’s Study and Conference Center in Bellagio, Italy, 11-15 March 2002. Paper 14 THE NATURE OF RURALITY IN POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY By David L. Brown and John B. We will write a custom essay sample on Rurality in Post Industrial Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now Cromartie? Draft 2/15/02 INTRODUCTION Urbanization is a dynamic social and economic process that transforms societies from primarily rural to primarily urban ways of life (Hauser, 1965). Few would dispute this definition, but how useful is it for examining the spatial reorganization of population and economic activities in postindustrial societies where a large majority of people, jobs, and organizations are concentrated in or dominated by urban agglomerations? The essence of this question hinges on our ability to differentiate between what is rural and urban in postindustrial societies. While this may have been a relatively straightforward task during the late 19th and early to mid 20th centuries, it has become an exceedingly complex question in the context of postindustrialization. We acknowledge the helpful comments of Calvin Beale, Kai Schafft, Laszlo Kulcsar, and the conference organizers Tony Champion and Graeme Hugo. Brenda Creeley prepared the manuscript. Early social scientists saw urbanization and industrialization as being reciprocally related. One process could not proceed without the other. While most scholars understood that urban and rural were not ent irely discrete categories, relatively clear lines could be drawn to distinguish urban from rural communities and distinct ways of life associated with each. In addition, early social scientists were convinced that the transformation from rural to urban-industrial society would be accompanied by a wide range of negative social outcomes. In fact, this concern is generally credited with motivating the rise of the new discipline of Sociology (Marx, 1976; Durkheim, 1951; Weber, 1968; Wirth, 1938). The social and economic organization of community life has been thoroughly transformed by technological and institutional changes since the mid 20th century. Accordingly, notions of what constitutes urban and rural communities that grew out of the era of industrialization may no longer offer a reliable lens with which to view contemporary settlement structures. They may no longer provide a reliable delineation of what is urban and what is rural, and consequently we may not be able to determine whether the level of urbanization is advancing, declining, or remaining constant. As a consequence, our analyses of population redistribution may bear little connection to the reality of spatial reorganization. The large literature on counter-urbanization, to which we are both contributors, may be missing the mark because it depends on data systems and geo-coding schemes that reflect a prior era of socio-spatial organization. Hence, our purpose in this paper is to propose a multidimensional approach for conceptualizing rurality that reflects the demographic, social, economic and institutional realities of postindustrial society. We agree with Halfacree (1993: p. 4) that â€Å"†¦the quest for an all-embracing definition of the rural is neither desirable nor feasible,† but we believe that social science can and should develop conceptual frameworks and geo-coding schemes to situate localities according to their degree of rurality. Since rurality is a multidimensional concept, the degree of rurality should be judged against a composite definition that includes key social, economic and demographic attributes. This approach rejects the notion of rural as a residual (after urban has be en measured). The operationalization of rurality should be flexible enough to differentiate urban from rural, while recognizing and appreciating the diversity contained within each category. Our approach to defining 2 rurality involves the material aspects of localities, but we acknowledge the validity of other approaches. As Halfacree and others have observed, rurality can be defined as a social representation. Or as he puts it, â€Å"the rural as space, and the rural as representing space† should be distinguished (1993: 34). We do not propose to debate the relative merits of the material and representational approaches in this paper. Each has a respected tradition in social science. Our sociodemographic approach is inspired by previous work of Paul Cloke, 1977 and 1986, while the social representation approach’s pedigree includes Moscovici, 1981, Giddens, 1984, and many other highly respected scholars. We feel that these approaches are complementary rather than competitive. As Martin Lewis has observed, â€Å"In the end, only by combining the insights of the new geography with those of the traditional approaches may human relatedness be adequately reconceptualized† (1991: 608). However, we emphasize the socioeconomic approach in this paper because of its utility for informing statistical practice essential to the quantitative empirical study of urbanization. Why Do We Need To Know What Is Rural In Postindustrial Society? At the most basic level, urbanization cannot be understood without also examining the nature of rurality. Perhaps it is axiomatic, but urbanization cannot proceed in postindustrial society unless rural people and communities persist and are at risk of â€Å"becoming urban. While there is copious evidence that rural-urban differences have diminished during the latter half of the 20th century, important differences have been shown to persist structuring the lives people live and the opportunities available to them (Brown and Lee, 1999; Fuguitt, et al. , 1989). In addition, what we believe about rural people and communities sets the agenda for public policy. The American public, for example, holds a strong pro-rural and/or antiurban bias that provides continuing support for agricultural and rural programs (Kellogg Foundation, 2002; RUPRI, 1995; Willits, et al. 1990), and quite possibly promotes population deconcentration (Brown, et al. , 1997). However, research has demonstrated that this pro-rural bias is based on nostalgic positive images of rural places, and a misunderstanding of the social and economic realities of rural life (Willits, et al. , 1990). What people value in rural communities is often formed â€Å"at a distance,† through literature, art and music, not through actual experience. As John Logan (1996: 26) has observed, â€Å"A 3 large share of what we value is the mythology and symbolism of rural places, rather than their reality. Accordingly, more reliable research-based information about the social and economic organization of rural areas, their role in national society, polity and economy, and their relative share of a nation’s population and economic activity will provide a stronger bas is for public policy. You read "Rurality in Post Industrial Society" in category "Papers" Bringing beliefs about rural areas into closer connection with empirical reality will improve the fit between rural problems and opportunities, public priorities, and the targeting of public investments. HOW CAN THE NATURE OF POSTINDUSTRIAL RURALITY BE DETERMINED? The Conventional Approach: Rural-urban classification in most national statistical systems typically involves two mutually exclusive categories. In most highly developed societies, (North America, Western Europe, Oceania, and Japan) the rural-urban delineation is based solely on population size and/or density (United Nations, 1999). It is not that government statisticians don’t understand that rurality is a variable not a discrete dichotomy, that the rural-urban distinction is somewhat arbitrary regardless of the population size or density threshold chosen, or that neither the rural nor the urban category is homogeneous. However, given their responsibilities for monitoring basic aspects of social organization and social change, and for providing data tabulations to the public, to businesses, and to other government agencies, the elemental need is to develop a geographic schema that makes intuitive sense, and where between category variability exceeds internal differentiation. It has not been realistic to expect statistical agencies to adopt a complex multidimensional delineation of rurality given the realities and politics of statistical practice in which budget constraints, and competition between stake holder groups determine which items are included on censuses and other large scale public surveys, and which variables are routinely included in tabulations and data products. However, the development of GIS techniques, and new advances in small area data collection and availability suggest that more flexibility and variability in geo-coding may be possible in the future. Hence, while we do not necessarily expect statistical agencies to adopt our multidimensional approach, we believe that it raises important questions about conventional methodologies for assessing the level and pace of urbanization in highly developed nations. 4 OMB’s New Core Based System: A Step In The Right Direction: The public availability of summary tape files from censuses and other nationwide surveys, provides significant opportunities for inquiry by university-based and government scientists into the extent and nature of rurality in postindustrial societies. In effect, analysts can design their own residential categorization schemes to examine various aspects of settlement structure and change. And, innovative research experimenting with alternative categorization systems can eventually contribute to changes in official statistical practice. For example, 25 years of research by social scientists in the USDA’s Economic Research Service (ERS) and in academia is ar guably responsible for persuading the U. S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) that an undifferentiated nonmetropolitan category is not defensible (Duncan and Reiss, 1956; Butler and Beale, 1994). As early as 1975, ERS was recommending that the nonmetropolitan category be disaggregated according to the degree of urbanization. In a major publication released in that year, Hines, Brown and Zimmer showed that more populous nonmetropolitan counties, especially those adjacent to metropolitan areas, were more similar to metropolitan areas than to their nonmetropolitan counterparts. OMB has now modified its official geo-coding scheme to recognize diversity within nonmetropolitan America. OMB has instituted a â€Å"core based statistical area classification system† that recognizes that both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan territory can be integrated with a population center. The new CBSA classification system establishes a micropolitan category as a means of distinguishing between nonmetropolitan areas that are integrated with centers of 10,000 to 49,999 population, and nonmetropolitan territory that is not integrated with any particular population center of 10,000 or more inhabitants (OMB, 2000). 2 Metropolitan counties contain 79 percent of the U. S. opulation and 21 percent of its land area in the new classification scheme while the 1 In the United States and some other postindustrial countries, two residential categorizations are used: urban vs. rural and metropolitan vs. nonmetropolitan. Some writers use these concepts interchangeably, but even though their respective shares of the nation’s total population have tracked quite closely during recent decades, they are different concepts. What is similar between them, however, is that rural and nonmetropolitan are both residuals that are left over once urban settlement is accounted for. Hence, the rural population includes all residents of places of less than 2,500 and persons who live outside of urbanized areas while the nonmetropolitan population includes all persons who live outside of metropolitan counties (counties containing or integrated with a place of 50,000 persons). 2 Social scientists have also objected to the use of counties as building blocks for the nation’s metropolitan geography, but the new OMB standards have retained counties in the new classification system (Morrill, Cromartie and Hart, 1999). 5 ercentages are exactly reversed for nonmetropolitan territory. The nonmetropolitan population is almost evenly split between micropolitan and noncore based areas, although the former category contains 582 counties while the latter has 1668. The data in tables 1-3 show substantial diversity between micropolitan and noncore based areas, and demonstrate the importance of distinguishing between these two types of counties. To begin with, the average mi cropolitan county has 45,875 persons compared with only 15,634 persons in the average noncore based area. The data in Table 1 also show that micropolitan counties have 43 persons per square mile while only 12 persons live on each square mile of noncore based territory. [Table 1 here] Table 2 compares social and economic characteristics of persons living in various types of U. S. counties. In each instance these data show regular patterns of decline as one moves from the largest metropolitan counties to noncore based counties. For example, almost half of all metropolitan persons have attended college compared about one third of nonmetropolitan residents, but only 31 percent of noncore based adults have been to college compared with 37 percent of persons living in micropolitan counties. Metropolitan workers are more dependent on jobs in service industries while their nonmetropolitan counterparts depend more heavily on farming and manufacturing, although these differences are not strikingly large. Within the nonmetropolitan category, however, dependence on farming is over twice as high in noncore based counties compared with micropolitan areas, and small but consistently smaller percentages of noncore based employees work in manufacturing, retail and services jobs. Similarly, professional, technical managerial and administrative occupations comprise a much larger share of metropolitan than nonmetropolitan jobs, and a larger share in micropolitan than in noncore based counties. Data on earnings per job (displayed in the bottom panel of Table 2) show that noncore based workers earn less than their micropolitan counterparts in all industrial categories, and their earnings are consistently the lowest of any county type in the U. S. [Table 2 here] We have also examined whether micropolitan areas are more â€Å"metropolitan† than noncore based counties with respect to the presence of various services and facilities typically associated with metropolitan status (Beale, 1984). We conducted a mail survey 6 f the heads of county government in a 10 percent random sample of noncore based areas, and in 20 percent of micropolitan and small metropolitan areas. We have only received about 40 percent of the questionnaires from the county executives at this time, so the data in Table 3 are provisional. 3 However, these preliminary results reveal that central counties of small metropolitan areas are clearly differentiated from both nonmetropolitan categories. In all t welve instances the presence of these â€Å"metropolitan functions† is most prevalent in small metropolitan counties, and least available in noncore based areas. Micropolitan areas, however, appear to be more similar to small metropolitan areas than to noncore based counties. Hence, OMB’s new system seems to be a step in the right direction from the undifferentiated nonmetropolitan residential. It does a good job of distinguishing between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, and between micropolitan and noncore based areas outside of the metropolitan category. [Table 3 here] While we applaud the OMB’s new classification system as a step toward recognizing rural diversity, we believe that it is just that, one step. We recommend that social science research further examine the multidimensional nature of rurality in order to enhance understanding of the extent of urban and rural settlement and urbanization in postindustrial societies, and to guide future modifications of official statistical geography. A MULTIDIMENSIONAL APPROACH TO CONCEPTUALIZING RURALITY IN POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES As mentioned earlier, our multidimensional approach elaborates and extends earlier work by Paul Cloke (1977; 1986). The basic notion is that while urban and rural have intrinsic meaning, both concepts derive much of their analytical power when compared with the other. Low population density, for example, has important meaning in and of itself, but its meaning is further clarified when low rural density is compared with the high ratio of persons to space found in urban regions. 4 Cloke’s objective was to develop a 3 We are now involved in the refusal conversion process and hope to obtain at least a 60 percent response rate. Moreover, attitudes about urban and rural areas are formed on the basis of the attributes people believe characterize such areas, but these attitudes also reflect people’s opinions of how rural and urban areas differ 4 7 quantitative statement of rurality that could be used as a basis for comparative studies among rural areas, and between them and urban areas. He used principal components analysis to identify nine variables associated with rural-urban location. Principal components loading scores were then used as weighting criteria to form an index of rurality. The resulting scores were arrayed in quartiles ranging from extreme rural to extreme non-rural, and each of England’s and Wales’ administrative districts was assigned to one of these four categories. In 1986, Cloke replicated his 1971 index. His second study showed that while most districts were classified in the same rural-urban category in both 1971 and 1981, some districts changed categories over the decade, and the nature of rurality itself was marginally transformed over time. He found that the variables differentiating rural from urban areas in 1981 were somewhat different than those used in the initial analysis. In particular, population decline and net out migration were important rural attributes in 1971, during a period of population concentration, but not in the 1981 analysis after the relative rates of rural-urban population change and net migration had reversed in favor of the periphery. The 1981 revision included 8 variables. Positive variable loadings on five of the eight factors indicated that they corresponded to urban characteristics (high level of housing occupancy, high percentage of workers outcommuting, high percentage of women in childbearing ages, high level of household amenities, and high population density) while negative loadings on the remaining three variables corresponded to rural characteristics (high involvement in extractive industries, disproportionate number of older persons, and distance from an urban area of 50,000 population). It is important to point out at this juncture that neither Cloke nor we are geographic determinists, e. g. , we do not contend that the type of environment people live in has an independent causal effect on their attitudes and behavior. On the other hand, we believe that spatial locality is more than simply a setting in which social and economic relationships occur. Our position is that a person’s place of residence in a nation’s settlement system can shape social and economic outcomes, and can have a profound impact on life chances (Brown and Lee, 1999). While a growing number of social from each other. Accordingly, the public’s overall positive attitude toward rural people and areas is a combination of â€Å"pro-rural† and â€Å"anti-urban† attitudes. 8 scientists agree that space should be incorporated into social theory and research, there is little agreement on the manner in which space enters into social behavior. The debate hinges on the question of whether spatial arrangements are an elemental cause of social behavior, or whether space acts in a more contingent manner. Our position is consistent with the latter view; that space has an important but contingent causative role in social relations. Hence, we see value in distinguishing rural from urban areas because we contend that rural-urban variations in socioeconomic status, for example, can only be understood by taking into account how contingent characteristics of rural and urban places modify the access to opportunities. In other words, we are saying that local social structure contextualizes social and economic behavior. We do not question the existence of fundamental social relationships, but we observe that these relationships are modified by spatial variability in social and economic contexts. Linking back to the status attainment example, education is positively related to income in all locations, but the strength of this relationship varies across local labor markets depending on their industrial and occupational structures. Education matters everywhere, but returns to education are higher in some spatial contexts than in others depending on the availability of well paying jobs and on the nature of the stratification system (Duncan, 1999). Dimensions of Rurality in the United States at the Turn of the Century: Cloke’s approach to defining rurality was largely inductive. His choice of variables was not shaped by a clearly defined theoretical framework for distinguishing rural from urban, although they were suggested by the literature as being important aspects of the sociospatial environment. Neither do we claim that our approach emanates from a wellcrafted theory of rurality, but we do start with a clear premise about four distinct dimensions that comprise rural environments in postindustrial societies. We then choose indicators for each domain that have been shown in the research literature to vary across rural-urban space. The concept of rurality we are proposing involves ecological, economic, institutional, and sociocultural dimensions. In this section of the paper we discuss each of these four dimensions in turn, and propose a set of indicators that could be used to empirically develop a composite measure of rurality. We follow Willits and Bealer (1967) in observing that a composite definition of rurality involves both the attributes of rural areas themselves, and the attributes of persons residing in such areas. Figure 1 shows 9 the four dimensions of rurality, indicators of each dimension, and the contrasting rural vs. rban situation for each indicator. Our approach indicates the attributes that define rurality, and it does so in a comparative framework vis a vis urbanity. [Figure 1 here] The Ecological Dimension: Population size, population density, spatial situation within a settlement system and natural resource endowments are included in this dimension. As indicated earlier, conventional statis tical practice typically emphasizes this approach. Urban vs. rural delineations are usually defined by a size and/or a density threshold, while metropolitan vs. onmetropolitan delineations use size and density criteria to identify central cities and measures of geographic access such as physical distance or commuting to signify the interdependence of peripheral areas. Hope Tisdale’s (1942) influential article provides one of the clearest theoretical statements for the size/density delineation, while central place theory is the primary theoretical basis for considering geographic location vis-a-vis other places in a settlement system (Berry, 1967). The ecological dimension also includes a consideration of the natural environment. As shown in Table 1, 79 percent of land in the United States is found outside of officially recognized metropolitan areas, and 61 percent is located in noncore based areas. While this tells volumes about density, it also indicates that most of America’s natural resources are located in its rural territory. Energy, minerals, land for agricultural production, water, and habitat for wild life are all found disproportionately in the rural sector, and this is an important aspect of the nation’s rurality during the postindustrial era. The Economic Dimension: This dimension concerns the organization of economic activity in local economies. It focuses on what people do for a living, the size and composition of local economies, and the linkages between local economic activities and national and global capital. Until the mid 20th century, rural and agriculture while not synonymous were very closely related, and definitions of rural were heavily influenced by measures of dependence on agriculture and other extractive industries. Rural economies were small and undifferentiated both in terms of establishments and workers, and localities had a relatively high degree of economic autonomy. 10 Many people continue to view rural areas through this archaic lens, even though local economies have been fundamentally restructured during the past 50 years. Direct dependence on agriculture, forestry, mining and fisheries has declined to less than one in ten nonmetropolitan workers although extractive industries continue to dominate economic activity in particular regions of the U. S. (Cook and Mizer, 1994). There is no denying that economic activities in rural and urban America have become much more similar since World War II. Not only has dependence on extractive industries declined throughout the country, but so has dependence on manufacturing, and most economic growth is now accounted for by services. However, the jobs available in rural labor markets continue to be significantly different than urban jobs. Rural manufacturing is more likely to be nondurable than urban manufacturing, and well paying producer services jobs are seldom available in rural economies. Moreover, research shows that full time rural workers earn less than urban workers regardless of their industry of employment, and that rural employment is significantly more likely to be part time and/or seasonal (Gale and McGranahan, 2001). While these rural-urban differences in employment do not adhere to the traditional farm-nonfarm contours, they show that opportunities available in rural labor markets are clearly inferior to those available in urban America, and that rural and urban areas can be differentiated with respect to how people make a living. Rural economies have traditionally been smaller than urban economies in terms of number of workers, the number and size of establishments, and the gross value of products or services sold. Of the three indicators of rural economic activity, this one has changed the least over time even though the decentralization of urban based branch plants has brought some large employers to particular rural areas. Moreover, rural economies have been much more dependent on one or a few types of economic activity than urban economies, and this too remains an important rural-urban difference. The â€Å"protection of distance† enjoyed (or suffered) by rural economies has clearly diminished in recent decades. Technological changes including all weather roads, the interstate highway system, virtually universal telephone service (now including cell phones), and the internet have greatly reduced rural isolation. This is not to deny that some important inequalities in transportation and communication infrastructure persist 11 between rural and urban areas, but for the most part the effect of physical distance has been substantially leveled by technological advances. Institutional changes, especially the increased mobility of capital, have further diminished rural economic independence. The deregulation of banking means that capital now flows easily to and from metro bank centers and the rural periphery. This has both positive and negative implications for particular rural communities, but the clear result is that rural economies are increasingly integrated within national and global structures. With this change comes a resulting decline of local autonomy and increased dependence on extra-local firms and organizations. This makes rural areas at the same time more attractive sites for certain types of external investment, and more likely to lose traditional employers because of financial decisions made elsewhere. There is little room for sentiment in the globalized economy, including sentiment for rural communities as valued â€Å"home places. † When the bottom line demands it, capital flows across national borders to production sites with low costs and few regulations, locating and relocating according to the demands of the market. The Institutional Dimension: Communities are institutionalized solutions to the problems of everyday life. Accordingly, some social scientists view communities as configurations of institutional spheres including education, religion, governance, the economy, etc. (Rubin, 1969). While we do not necessarily subscribe to this functionalist view of community organization, there is no denying that institutions are a critical aspect of local social structure, and that human beings would have little use for communities if they did not serve recurring needs. Both urban and rural areas have formal institutional sectors. Most places have some form of politics and local governance, organized religion, education, and voluntary and service organizations. Moreover, as discussed in the preceding section, sustenance and economic activity are important aspects of locality. Rural and urban areas are not so much differentiated by the presence or absence of particular types of institutions as by their diversity and capacity. For example, schools, newspapers and churches, are widespread, but most rural communities offer a narrower range of choices as to where one’s children may be educated, where to worship, and/or the media from which one obtains local news. School consolidation in rural America has resulted in fewer and larger schools. Students are often bussed long distances to school. 12 Similarly, while churches are present in most rural communities, the range of denominations and congregations is narrow. Clubs, service organizations, and voluntary associations are also an important part of rural community life, but the choice of organizations to join is constrained in comparison to the organizational choices available in urban environments. Rural institutions also tend to have more limited capacity than their urban counterparts. Rural governments, for example, are often constrained by part time leadership, insufficient fiscal resources, ineffective organizational structures, limited access to technical information and expertise, and limited ability to assess changing community needs (Kraybill and Lobao, 2001; Cigler, 1993). The Sociocultural Dimension: Moral traditionalism is one of the most consistent themes subsumed under the term â€Å"rural culture† (Willits and Bealer, 1967). Rural persons are often considered to be more conservative than their urban counterparts, and data from national surveys indicate this to be true in the United States. Calvin Beale (1995) has shown that 49 percent of rural respondents to a 1993 National Opinion Research Center (NORC) national survey regard themselves as religious fundamentalists compared with 33 percent of urban respondents. Similarly, a much lower percentage of rural respondents believe that abortion should be available for any reason (26 percent vs. 44 percent), and a much higher percentage of rural persons believe that homosexuality is immoral (84 percent vs. 2 percent). Beale also observed that rural voters have been more likely to support conservative candidates in recent elections even though rural persons are slightly more likely than urban persons to describe themselves as democrats. A related idea is that rural conservatism is often associated with the homogeneity of the rural population. Wirth (1938) and ot hers argued that increased population diversity was one of the dominant effects of urbanization, and one of the reasons why informal social control was likely to break down in cities. Ironically, Fisher (1975) and other critics of Wirth, argued that ethnic diversity rather than contributing to a weakening of the social order was a main reason why the strength of social relations did not diminish in cities, and why community was not â€Å"eclipsed† in urban environments. While the association between ethnic and other aspects of population diversity and social and political attitudes is still an open question, research clearly indicates that rural populations in the U. S. , while 13 increasingly diverse, remain significantly more homogeneous than urban populations (Fuguitt, et al. 1989). In addition, the rural population’s racial and ethnic diversity is not spread evenly across the landscape, but tends to concentrate in particular regions and locales (Cromartie, 1999). Hence, even though about one out of ten rural Americans is African American, few rural communities are 10 percent Black. Rather, Blacks tend either to comprise the majority or large mino rity of a rural population or an insignificant percentage. The same tends to be true with respect to other racial and/or ethnic populations. Much has been written to suggest that primary social interaction is more prevalent and more intense in rural areas, and that rural areas have a higher level of informal social control than is true in urban areas. However, these contentions, if ever true, are not supported by contemporary empirical evidence. Copious research has shown that urban persons are involved in regular and intense interaction with family, friends and neighbors, and that community has not been eclipsed in urban America (Hummon, 1990; Fischer, 1975). Moreover, research by Sampson (1999), and others has shown that social networks are quite effective in regulating social behavior in urban locales. Accordingly, primary social interaction and effective social control do not differentiate rural and urban areas in contemporary American society, and are not components of the sociocultural dimension of rurality. CONCLUSIONS How urbanized are postindustrial societies? How rapidly is the remaining rural population being incorporated within the urban category? How do rural people and rural areas contribute to and/or detract from the social and economic well being of highly developed nations? We contend that answering these questions accurately is contingent on the availability of theoretically informed definitions of rural and urban areas. Virtually every developed nation uses population size and density as the basis for its differentiation of urban and rural areas. Areas obtain urban status by reaching some threshold of population size and/or density, and commuting or some similar measure of routine social and/or economic interaction is used to determine whether peripheral areas are integrated with, and hence part of large/dense urban agglomerations. Rural areas are simply the residual—areas that fail to satisfy the urban threshold or lack routine interaction with core 14 areas. We join with many previous scholars in arguing that this approach is blind to the complex multidimensional nature of postindustrial rurality. We believe that the residual approach is inadequate for differentiating rural from urban populations, and for examining social, economic, political, ecological and other forms of diversity within the rural category itself. We have recommended a multidimensional framework for considering the nature of rurality in postindustrial society. Our approach includes conventional demographic measures, and adds information on the natural environment, economic structures and activities, the diversity and capacity of institutions, and a sociocultural domain. Our case is the United States but we believe that the situation we describe in the U. S. is similar to that in most other postindustrial societies. Our paper rejects the notion that rurality is simply a residual that is leftover once urban areas have been identified. The rural as residual approach clearly identifies the extremes or urbanity and rurality (Paris, France vs. Paris, Texas, for example), but it offers no guidance for examining settlements that fall in the intermediate zone between these extremes. We believe that the multidimensional approach to conceptualizing rurality is helpful not only for distinguishing urban from rural but also for understanding the variability of social and economic organization that occurs within both categories. As we have shown, the OMB’s new core-based statistical areas systems is a step toward recognizing important aspects of rural diversity and of focusing attention on the zone between what is clearly urban and clearly rural. We acknowledge that there is a venerable tradition in social science of examining the correlates of city size (Duncan, 1951; Duncan and Reiss, 1956), and that it is possible that rural-urban variability in ecological, economic, institutional and sociocultural attributes may simply be a reflection of inter area differences in population size. If this is the case then the conventional practice of using population size to define urbanity may be sufficient for delineating urban from rural. In contrast, if the other dimensions of social and economic activity are only weakly associated with population size then conventional statistical practice may be producing misleading information regarding urbanization and the conditions of life in rural and urban communities. This important question merits continued examination in future research. 15 Changes in a nation’s urban-rural balance have significance that extends beyond purely academic curiosity. Understanding how variability in spatial context affects opportunity structures and the quality of life contributes to producing flexible public programs that are sensitive to local needs. Misinformation about the social, economic and institutional organization of rural and/or urban areas, and about the size and composition of a nation’s population living and working in rural and urban places will result in misinformed policies. For example, if policy makers believe that most rural persons are farmers, agricultural policies will be seen as a reasonable response to rural poverty and income insecurity. But, of course, agricultural policies will not have much of an effect on rural poverty because most rural persons in postindustrial societies do not depend on farming for their livelihoods (Gibbs, 2001). Or, if research indicates that the size of a nation’s rural population has held constant over time, as is the case in the United States where about 55-60 million persons has been classified as rural since 1950, then significant public investments for rural development will be legitimized (at least from an equity perspective). But, if the measurement of rurality is too permissive, and the population that is genuinely rural has actually declined, then public resources may be targeted to the wrong populations. We realize that the multidimensional perspective we are promoting could not be easily or cheaply built into a national statistical system. But, regardless of its practicality our framework raises important questions about the sufficiency of the size/density conventions used throughout the developed world, and consequently about the state of knowledge on urbanization in postindustrial societies. Moreover, our contention that rurality should not be treated as an undifferentiated residual complements the social representational approach in which rurality is defined by how people imagine community life in everyday discourse. Both approaches focus attention on the complexity of contemporary rural life and its continuing distinctiveness in comparison with urban areas. 16 REFERENCES Beale, C. 1995. â€Å"Non Economic Value of Rural America. † Paper presented at the USDA experts’ conference on the value of rural America. † Washington, DC: USDA-ERS. ______. 1984. â€Å"Poughkeepsie’s Complaint or Defining Metropolitan Areas. † American Demographics 6(1): 28-31; 46-48. Berry, B. 1967. Geography of Market Centers and Retail Distribution. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Brown, D and M. Lee. 1999. Persisting Inequality Between Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan America: Implications for Theory and Policy. † Pp. 151-167 in P. Moen, D. Demster-McClain and H. 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American Journal of Sociology 44(1): 129. 19 Figure 1: A Multidimensional Framework of Rurality in Postindustrial Society Indicators Rural Areas or Populations Urban Areas or Populations Are More Likely to Be: Are More Likely to Be: Dimensions of Rurality Ecological Dimension Population Size Population Density Situation in Settlement System Natural Environ ment Economic Dimension Dependence on Industrial Activities Size of Local Economy Diversity of Economic Activity Autonomy of Local Economy Institutional Dimension Local Choice Public Sector Capacity Sociocultural Dimension Beliefs/Values Population Diversity Small Low/Scattered Peripheral Rich in Natural Resources Large High/Concentrated Central Lacking Natural Resources Extractive Nondurable Manufacturing Consumer Services Small Workforce Small Establishments Undiversified Low/Dependent Producer Services Professional Services Durable Manufacturing Large Workforce Large Establishments Diversified High Narrow/Constrained Limited/Modest Wide High Conservative Homogeneous Progressive Heterogeneous 20 Table 1: Population, Land Area, Density and Percent Rural by CBSA Category, 19901 CBSA Category U. S. Metro Large Small Nonmetro Micro Non-CBSA 1 No. Counties 3,141 891 606 285 2,250 582 1,668 Population 1,000s Percent 248,709 195,930 171,606 24,323 52,780 26,699 26,081 100 79 69 10 21 11 10 Land Area (square miles) 1,000s Percent 3,536 737 488 249 2,799 625 2,174 100 21 14 7 79 18 61 Population Per Sq. Mile 70 266 351 98 19 43 12 See OMB (2000) for discussion of procedures used to delineate CBSA county types. Source: 1990 U. S. Census of Population 21 Table 2: Comparative Profile of Metro, Micro and Noncore Based Counties, U. S. , 19901 Metropolitan Large Small Nonmetropolitan Micro Noncore Characteristic Educational Attainment Pct. Less Than High School Pct. High School Pct. College Total Total 23 29 48 23 28 49 25 32 43 31 35 34 29 34 37 34 36 31 Industry of Employment (selected) Pct. Farm Pct. Manufacture Pct. Retail Pct. Services 1 13 16 29 1 13 16 30 3 15 18 25 8 18 16 21 5 18 17 22 11 17 15 19 Occupation of Employment (selected) Pct. Manager, Professional Pct. Tech. , Sales, Admin. Pct. Labor2 Earnings Per Job3 All Jobs (000) Manufacture (000) Retail (000) Services (000) 1 2 28 33 24 29 34 24 24 30 28 20 26 34 21 27 33 18 24 36 27 36 15 24 27 37 15 25 0 27 12 16 20 25 12 15 20 27 12 16 18 23 11 14 See OMB (2000) for rules used to identify county types. Skilled and unskilled 3 Nonfarm jobs Source: 1990 U. S. Census of Population 22 Table 3: Presence of Services and Facilities by County Type, 20001 Percent Provided in County Micro 29 71 62 58 91 89 41 64 38 100 45 Service or Facility Scheduled Passenger Air Service Scheduled Inter County Bus Service Local Bus Servic e Museum2 Daily Newspaper National or Regional Hotel Franchise Four Year College Library with Multiple Branches Commercial Television Station3 General Hospital4 N 1 Small Metro 50 91 95 77 95 100 82 64 68 100 22 Noncore Based 11 31 29 23 18 44 11 34 9 74 71 Ten percent sample of noncore based counties; 20% samples of small metro and micro counties. Current response rate = small metro: 41%; micro: 75%; noncore: 42%. Art, science or natural history with focus beyond local county. With local news and advertising. With at least two of four of the following services: emergency room, physical therapy, cardiac care or MRI. 2 3 4 23 How to cite Rurality in Post Industrial Society, Papers

IT Risk Management for Security and Technology- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theIT Risk Management for Security and Technology. Answer: Introduction It security management is an important subject for the organisations as security of the public data is given the highest priority in recent time. With the advancement of internet and technology many loopholes have been created in the security system of the computers and the information technology system (Rampini Viswanathan, 2016). There are many threats and risks which are also responsible for the breakdown of the security system of the IT organisations database. The organisations are continuously working to make the database and the infrastructure of the information system more secured. In this report mainly three topics are discussed and those are IT security and technology landscape, IT security models and access control and the IT security threats and risk assessment. These topics are discussed in order to understand the security background and the risks issues for the information technology organisations and the computing system. IT Security Technology Landscape Security is an important parameter in the information technology industry for keeping the information of public and organization secured. To maintain the security IT companies are creating new technologies and methods which refer to the IT security and technology landscape. There is a huge difference between the customers security requirement and the security which is given by the IT organizations (Chance Brooks, 2015). To overcome this gap IT companies are emphasizing more on the security and technical landscape. In IT sectors various groups are working for different security problems in different fields like network security, applications security and endpoint security. The network security deals with the risk issues regarding various network layers and protocols. Application security works for the security of different applications and software. Hardware like modem and servers related security is maintained in the endpoint security (Cole et al., 2013). Devices, applications, data and users are considered as the assets in the security landscape. To ensure the security different operations like identification, protection, detection, respond and recovery are executed. First step identification consists of defining the assets, viruses, malware, measuring attack surface and risk profiling. Protection can be done by preventing and limiting the impact of the security issues and by managing the access. The detection process consists of discovering the events, anomalies and finding the intrusions. The respond and recovery are done by using different restoring operations (DeAngelo Stulz, 2015). Cyber defense matrix is one of the useful applications that is used to identify the risk levels of different security related issues and to analyze them with respect to the resources and operations as discussed earlier. The principles and the priority list of the organization are also important from the point of view of detection and removing security related issues. Figure: Cyber defence matrix (Sourc: DeAngelo Stulz, 2015) Figure: Enterprise security market segments (Source: Cole et al., 2013) IT Security Models Access Controls Access control is the identification of an individual making a particular process or job by authenticating and to provide power to the person to decide that who will have the access to the website or computer. Generally the access is created by making the account of the user first and then the user is given a username and a password (Glendon, Clarke McKenna, 2016). For access control different software are designed in such a way that they can provide the permission to the user for the access of the website and the computer. The process of provide the permission to the individuals to make their duties, depends upon the access control models. There are different types of access control models. These are Mandatory Access Control (MAC), Role Based Access Control, Discretionary Access Control and Rule based Access Control. The MAC or Mandatory Access Control is used to provide the access to the administrator or the owner. This refers that there is no control for the end user to access th e settings (Lam, 2014). There are also two models in MAC and those are Biba and Bell-Lapadula. Biba model works on the integrity of the model and the other one works for the confidentiality of data. In case of Role based control the access is given with respect to the users position in an organisation. The Discretionary Access Control or DAC is the lowest restrictive model that allows the users to access all the programs they use. State machine model is another type of IT security model that helps to make the state of a system accessible to the user by the help of the finite state model. IT Security Threat and risk assessment The IT security threat and risk assessment is an important parameter which is given high priority by the organisations in order to maintain security. Threat can be considered as the possible danger for the security of a computing system. Threats can be of two types and those are intentional and accidental (McNeil, Frey Embrechts, 2015). Computer malfunctioning, possibility of a natural disaster are the reasons of threat. Deliberate threats are created by spying, illegal processing of data and the accidental threats are created by the equipment failure or software failure. Threats can make damages to different assets in different way. Risks can be of various types. There may be sudden power loss or damage of the hardware and the software connected to a computer system (Pritchard PMP, 2014). Due to risks data can be loosed and security can be affected. There is a basic difference between the risks and the treats. Threats can be predefined and calculate but the risks cannot be pre est imated. Different methods can be followed to overcome the threats but risks cannot be overcome by taking any progressive action. The computer system and the information technology of a system should be well maintained and monitored to overcome the risks and threats. Several antivirus, firewalls can be used to make the threats away from the computing system. Conclusion From the above discussion it is concluded that IT security management is an important parameter to overcome the possible threats and risks for the computer system. It security and technology landscape provides the idea about the security model of the computing systems. There are many access controls which should be implemented in the security models to overcome the security related issues. References Chance, D. M., Brooks, R. (2015). Introduction to derivatives and risk management. Cengage Learning. Cole, S., Gin, X., Tobacman, J., Topalova, P., Townsend, R., Vickery, J. (2013). Barriers to household risk management: Evidence from India. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 5(1), 104-135. DeAngelo, H., Stulz, R. M. (2015). Liquid-claim production, risk management, and bank capital structure: Why high leverage is optimal for banks. Journal of Financial Economics, 116(2), 219-236. Glendon, A. I., Clarke, S., McKenna, E. (2016). Human safety and risk management. Crc Press. Lam, J. (2014). Enterprise risk management: from incentives to controls. John Wiley Sons. McNeil, A. J., Frey, R., Embrechts, P. (2015). Quantitative risk management: Concepts, techniques and tools. Princeton university press. Pritchard, C. L., PMP, P. R. (2014). Risk management: concepts and guidance. CRC Press. Rampini, A. A., Viswanathan, S. (2016). Household risk management (No. w22293). National Bureau of Economic Research.

Buddhism Essays (3162 words) - Gautama Buddha, Buddhism In Japan

Buddhism In Life there is suffering. This spurs on the unending search for universal truth and meaning. Jodo Shinsu is an answer to this search. The "practice" of Jodo Shinshu is the recitation of the Nembutsu with self-reflection. It involves hearing the call of Amida Buddha, the Buddha of Eternal Life and Infinite Light, Compassion and Wisdom, within others' or ours recitation of the Name. Which calls us to raise our spiritual perspectives beyond immediate ego interests to universal concerns for compassion, justice in the human community and concern for the life of nature. The hole of life is Nembutsu. A life lived in awareness, that we ourselves are the expressions, the manifestations, of interdependence and compassion and dedicated to bringing that reality to others as we have experienced it. The Nembutsu is a spiritual shrine, which can be transported and reverenced wherever one may be. Time or space does not bind religious practice. Rather, from within the deep recesses of one's spirit the call of Amida Buddha can be heard, bringing our attention back to the very source of life itself, and evidencing its presence in the very act of living itself. http://www.mew.com/shin/doc/txt/pax.html Buddhism is one of the world's great religions. The religion is based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as The Buddha, who lived approximately 557 BC to 477 BC. The word "Buddha" means a Supremely Enlightened One or Fully Awakened One (also a Tathagata) who has won the realization of the True Permanent Absolute Reality, the ultimate truth. Buddhism is built on a framework that consists of the Four Noble Truths, four fundamental principles of nature (Dhamma) that emerged from the Buddha's honest and penetrating assessment of the human condition and that serve to define the entire scope of Buddhist practice. These truths are not fixed dogmatic principles, but living experiences to be explored individually in the heart of the sincere spiritual seeker: To each of these Noble Truths the Buddha assigned a specific task, which the practitioner is to carry out. The first Noble Truth is to be comprehended dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness, and stress): life is fundamentally fraught with unsatisfactoriness and disappointment of every description. The second is the cause of dukkha: the cause of this dissatisfaction is tanha (craving) in all its forms. The third is the cessation of dukkha: an end to all that unsatisfactoriness can be found through the relinquishment and abandonment of the cravings. The full realization of the third Noble Truth paves the way for the direct penetration of Nirvana, the transcendent freedom that stands as the final goal of all the Buddha's teachings. The last of the Noble Truths (the Noble Eight fold Path), contains a prescription for the relief of our unhappiness and for our eventual release once and for all from the painful and wearisome cycle of birth and death (samsara) to which through our own ignorance (avijja) of the Four Noble Truths we have been bound for countless aeons. The Noble Eight fold Path offers a comprehensive practical guide to the development of those wholesome qualities and skills in the human heart that must be cultivated in order to bring the practitioner to the final goal, the supreme freedom and happiness of Nirvana. The eight qualities to be developed are Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. The Quality of Right View is to aspire to attain realization of perfect wisdom, the ultimate true permanent reality. Abstain from all evil acts of thought, to attain the total destruction of all cravings. The Quality Of Right Resolve is to renounce all manifesting, all constructions, all that is "created" make-believe, to develop dispassion, total detachment, absolute renunciation, self-surrender. To bring about the cessation of all "created" realities. To self-realize is the incomparable awakening of self. To win the freedom of mind, the freedom through perfect intuitive wisdom, the sane and immune emancipation of will. Right Speech is to abstain from all lying speech, all perjurious speech, all evil abusive speech and all frivolous speech. To engage in speech and discussion that pertains to and leads to Nirvana, to what's actually permanent and real. Right Action is to abstain from all killing of all creatures, abstain from all stealing, abstain from all sensual and sexual misconduct, abstain from all evil acts, and abstain from all forms of intoxication. Right Living is to abstain from all evil methods of livelihood. Right Effort is to destroy all evil states of mind that has already arisen. To keep new evil states of mind

The Useful Guide on Writing a Medicine Essay

The Useful Guide on Writing a Medicine Essay A medicine essay is a written work that is concerned with a medical topic. Such a paper can be specific and demand some research and even the lab work. Alternatively, it can be an essay that requires one’s opinion regarding the health issue. For instance, when the guidelines state that a student should write about a perfect regime, favorite type of sport, or the importance of having the first aid skills. The medicine essays presuppose that the writer can enrich own knowledge of a certain topic and learn how to compose a well-structured and cohesive text. The following medicine essay writing guide suggests a number of tips that would help one during the writing process starting from the choice of the topic and ending up with the rules of the creation of a conclusion. Why Is It Important to Write a Medicine Essay? The art of healing medicine unites some of the most urgent and important topics as the field is concerned with human life. Different types of essays may help one explore the theme. Medicine is an important area as the professional employees can lend assistance, maintain one’s state of health, and save a life. Even if a person is not directly connected to the medical sphere, there are many topics that one should be aware of. For instance, anything that deals with the personal hygiene, taking care of the patients, the rules of the first aid measures, as well as the symptoms of some illness would be helpful for every person who pays attention to own health. Writing the medicine essay, one would learn to structurize the information about a particular topic. What is more, depending on a type of the essay, one can broaden own knowledge. Thus, if one should write an argumentative essay, one would learn how to use a bulk of information to shape own position and advocate it. The Choice of the Topic for Medicine Essay Writing Medicine is a wide sphere that is interconnected with many other subjects. Therefore, the choice of the topic depends on a number of factors. First and foremost, one should be aware of the tendencies connected with the chosen direction. While we are living in the age of the continuously emerging technologies, it is no wonder that medicine is also continuously evolving. Thus, the choice of the topic for the medicine essay should mirror the latest tendencies and important changes that would be interesting and useful to find out about. A good topic should be comprehensible and define the key idea of the entire essay. Importantly, the title should also be concise, however, clear. The best way to decide on the topic is to make previous research to find out which topics are explored the most lately. In addition, it should also be noted that one can ask the professor to check the chosen topic so that he or she can either confirm it or give a piece of advice as for some changes in it. As for a bad topic, it is the one that is not relevant, too often chosen by other students or the one that is similar to one’s previously chosen themes of the medicine essays. Here are some examples of the proper topics for the medicine essays: Health Policy in the USA; Antibiotic Resistance; Autism in Children; Abortion Should be Illegal; The Advantages of Medical Cannabis; First Aid in Extreme Situations; What One Should Know About Schizophrenia; The Impact of the Stress on the Academic Progress; The Connection Between Videogames and Violence in Teenagers; The Ethics of Gene Engineering. These are only some topics that can be chosen by a writer, however, it often happens that the professors provide their students with a ready list of topics. In case if one has got the ready list of themes, it is easier to make a choice. Pre-Writing Tips on How to Start an Essay in Medicine As soon as the right topic is chosen and is comprehensively formulated, one should get down to work. The writing process always has to be well organized as long as it directly impacts on the quality of the writing. Therefore, one should not ignore the preparation. It is noteworthy to mention that this preparation moment is concerned with not only the research work, choice of the essay type, the list of the sources, however, the organization of the writing space as well. In such a way, one should choose the most appropriate spot that would create a working atmosphere, exclude the distracting objects and noises. Even though it may sound too pretentious at first, however, it is not hard and will not take much time. On the contrary, the right atmosphere would be a plus for the successful completion of the task. Finally, it is important that one has some pencil or pen and a notebook nearby as these would be needed for the creation of the outline. How to Create a Helpful Medicine Essay Outline? An outline is, indeed, helpful and allows one to create a cohesive and readable essay. What is more, a plan assists a writer during the search of the sources. The points of the outline define certain subtopic. Besides, one can focus on some specific subtopic and fully cover it. The chosen topic functions as a starting point and presupposes the key point of the paper. In such a way, there are few medicine essay writing tips for one to remember while creating an effective outline: Before the creation of the perfect outline, one would have to write down several ideas that should be discussed in the essay. These ideas would later become the skeleton of the body part of the work. As the main ideas are defined, one would need to organize them. At this point, one would rearrange all the ideas putting them in the right order so that the whole paper would make sense and sound logical. As the previous step is done, on would have to review and adjust the written. While reviewing the listed ideas, one can either add something or vice versa delete some unneeded points. The Creation of the Thesis Statement for Your Medicine Essay The thesis is one of the most important parts of the paper as it, in fact, drives the entire essay. It is possible to build the thesis statement on the topic and the ideas that construct the body of the paper. It is worthy to mention that students do not pay much attention to this element of the essay, however, it is both helpful and guiding. During the writing process, one would always align the written material with the thesis statement. Every new paragraph of one’s work would also be connected with it in one way or another. Thus, the first and foremost rule while creating a valid and worthy statement is that the thesis should answer the major question concerned with the topic. For instance, if the essay’s theme is â€Å"First Aid in Extremal Situations† that the thesis statement would sound as follows: â€Å"Being aware of the basic rules of the first aid is a crucial skill in the extremal situations.† In this case, the body of the essay would discuss d ifferent points of the topic that are still connected with this main idea defined in the thesis statement. The Research Work on Your Medicine Essay Before starting essay writing, one would have to do some research work to gather as much useful information as possible. Sometimes people disregard the importance of this point, while it is exactly what makes an essay a worthy one. For sure, one would need to look through a number of websites, databases, journal articles, and books before choosing only some of them that fit perfectly the topic. The Structure of the Medicine Essay The structure of the essay follows the standard structure that consists of the introduction, body, and conclusion. At the same time, however, one should be aware of the fact that different types of essay require some structural peculiarities as well. In the case of the argumentative or persuasive essays, one should be especially attentive with the thesis statement that should suggest the position of the writer. What is more, at the end of the body part, there would be an opposing argument, and one would refute it in the essay’s body. In the compare and contrast essays, a student can use either the block or the point-by-point method. The first method presupposes that the similar and different points would be alternating with each other, while the block method means that one would first define all the similarities and then all the differences. Importantly, the introduction includes the thesis, the body parts turn around it, using the examples and details to prove it, and the con cluding paragraph restates the thesis summarizing all the points mentioned in the body part of the essay. Searching for the Credible Sources Used in a Medicine Essay As it has already been mentioned, the sources are important for the masterful and effective essay. While searching for the references, one should be attentive and choose only credible sources. Knowing the exact structure of the essay, it is easier to search for the appropriate sources that would cover the theme of the concrete paragraph. Talking about the credibility, one should be aware that it is an indicator that shows the appropriateness of the source, as well as its trustworthiness. On the Internet, there is a lot of specialized journals, books, reports, case studies, and official web pages that provide everyone interested in the information. The links that contain some general purpose domains like ‘.gov’, ‘.edu’, and ‘.org’ should be prioritized. One should also ignore the blogs, encyclopedias, or outdated sources. It is considered that the source is an old one if the date of publication was more than five years ago. As for the medical essays, it is better to use the articles that are written by those who are directly connected with the healthcare field. The rules of citation can be found on such websites as Owl Purdue. The webpage is a good choice as it suggests the citation rules for all the paper formats that are usually used for the essay writing activity. With the help of Owl Purdue, one would create a references page and manage the in-text citations effectively. Thus, for instance, the article that can be found here would look the following way in the APA format: Meadan, H., Halle, J.W., and Ebata, A.T. (2010). Families With Children Who Have Autism Spectrum Disorders: Stress and Support. Exceptional Children, v. 77-1, pp. 7-36. Post-Writing Tips Applied by Our Writers in Medicine Essays As soon as the paper is done, one should not relax as there is one more important stage of the writing process. The writers sometimes neglect the reviewing part. In practice, it is the thing that can considerably help in terms of improvement of the entire work. It should also be noted that despite the fact that the outline helps to organize the essay, the final version of the paper may show that some changes are to be made in the work. A writer not only proofreads the writing, however, also paraphrases certain parts of the text, adds or deletes something, and even rearranges the paragraphs. The effectiveness of the essay revision depends on a number of factors. The key advice, in this case, is concerned with the time when the proofreading is made. Thus, in an ideal scenario, one would have to take a break before reviewing the completed essay. After an intensive working process, a huge amount of different information, one can miss something important due to the tiredness. In such a way, as soon as the last word is printed, a student should take a breath, do some exercises for the eyes, maybe have some tea, or lie down listening to favorite music. Normally, such a break lasts for not less than 30 minutes. After such a small recreation, it is necessary to get down to the proofreading activity with the fresh mind. Use your fresh mind during the whole essay writing. You’re encouraged enough to write a medicine essay effectively for your academic performance and the field of study as well. Make progress together with us!